Cba 300 Ch 1 Notes

CBA 300—Section 01 ? Dr. Sam Min CBA353 ? Office Hours: Friday 8:00am – 10:00am ? Read your text book first, come & take notes, and read newspapers ? Tests are straightforward, text, weakly reading, and lectures TEST 1 September 14 Chapters 1, 2, 3 TEST 2 October 5 Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7 TEST 3 October 26 Chapters 8, 9, 10, 11 TEST 4 November 16 Chapters 12, 13, 14, 15 FINAL Final Week Chapters 16, 17, 18 Assignments & in-class activities Total (50 points) (50 points) (50 points) (50 points) (50 points) (30 points) 280 points CBA 300—Section 01 †¢ The grading system will be as follows: Total points Possible: 280 252 and more = A 224 to 251 = B 196 to 223 = C 168 to 195 = D Less than 167 = F 2 3 ASSIGNMENTS 1-5 Please read any article of your interest, which is related to International Business and (1) summarize the article (1/2 page) and (2) discuss what you learned from reading the article (1/2 page). †¢ Do not write more than 1 page. †¢ Use 12 font size, 1. 5 spaced, 1-inch margins, and Times New Roman. This assignment is worth maximum 4 points. Due is on each testing date! 4 Chapter 1 – The Challenging World of International Business International Business 13e by Ball, Geringer, McNett, and Minor 5 Why you need global business perspective? †¢ â€Å"Having a foreign perspective gives you an advantage not only for doing business outside U. S. but domestically, where we have the most diverse society in the world. † – Carlos Gutierrez, the CEO of Kellogg & US 35th Secretary of Commerce 6CEOs of Fortune’s larges American corporations strongly believe: (1) An international orientation should be an important part of college business education (2) International business skills and knowledge were important not merely for promotion to senior executive positions, but also for appointment to entry-level positions, and across a broad array of functional as well as cross-functional areas (3) The above two p oints are even more important for those anticipating international activities increase in the next five years. 7 My suggestions 1) Take IB course(s) (2) Consider going overseas (exchange program, intern, English teacher, volunteer, mission, etc. ) (3) Learn foreign language 8 Topics †¢ What is international business? †¢ IB Concepts and seven dimensions for globalizing a business †¢ What is different about international business? †¢ Growth of international firms and IB †¢ What is globalization? †¢ The drivers of globalization 9 What is International Business? †¢ International Business (IB): any business transaction across national borders – Trade in goods – Cross-border services ? consulting, advertising, egal, financial, accounting ? tourism, banking, communications/media, construction management, etc. †¢ Company activity inputs may involve IB activity even if outputs do not – Firm’s revenues may come entirely from the home country – Key raw materials, knowledge, processes may come partially or entirely from other countries Concepts of International Companies A Multidomestic Company has multi-country affiliates, each of which formulates its own business strategy based on perceived market difference A Global Company attempts to standardize and integrate operations worldwide in all functional areas. 1 The 7 Dimensions for Globalizing a Business 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1-12 Product Markets Promotion Where value is added Competitive strategy Use of non-home-country personnel Extent of global ownership in firm What is Different about International Business? International Business †¢ deals with 3 environmental forces: 1. Domestic 2. Foreign 3. International Domestic Business †¢ deals with the domestic market †¢ But†¦may face foreign competition in domestic market 1-13 Why is International Business Different? : Forces in the Environment ?Environmental forces can be classified as external or internal. †¢ External forces are uncontrollable, but perhaps can be influenced by mgmt. †¢ Internal forces are controllable by mgmt, but not completely. 14 External Forces †¢ Competitive – Kind, number, location †¢ Distributive – For distributing goods and services †¢ Economic – GNP, unit labor cost, personal consumption expenditure †¢ Socioeconomic – Characteristics of human population †¢ Financial – Interest rates, inflation rates, taxation 15 External Forces, cont’d. Legal – Laws governing how international firms must operate †¢ Physical – Topography, climate, and natural resources †¢ Political – Forms of government, and international organizations †¢ Sociocultural – Attitudes, beliefs, and opinions †¢ Labor – Skills, attitudes of labor †¢ Technological – Equipment and skills that affect how resources are converted to produ cts 16 Internal Environmental Forces †¢ Factors of Production – Capital, raw materials, and people †¢ Activities of the organization – Personnel, finance, production, and marketing 17Explosive Growth †¢ Exporting – transportation of any domestic good/service to a destination outside a country or region – The level of world merchandise exports increased from $2 trillion (1980) to $15. 24 trillion (2010). – Service $365 billion (1980) to $3. 7 trillion (2010). 18 Growth in the volume of world merchandise exports and production, 2000-2007 2000-07 World merchandise exports Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 5. 5 4. 0 3. 5 6. 5 2005 6. 5 6. 0 3. 5 7. 5 2006 8. 5 6. 0 3. 5 10. 0 2007 6. 0 4. 5 3. 0 7. 5World merchandise production Agriculture Mining Manufacturing World GDP 3. 0 2. 5 1. 5 3. 0 3. 0 3. 0 2. 0 1. 5 4. 0 3. 0 3. 0 1. 5 1. 0 4. 0 3. 5 4. 0 2. 5 0. 0 5. 0 3. 5 Note : See the Metadata for the estimation of world aggregates of merchandise exports, production and GDP. 19 Growth in volume of world merchandise trade and GDP, 2000-11 (Annual % change) Source: WTO 2011a: Figures of 2011 are projections 20 Explosive Growth ? Foreign Direct Investment – Direct investment in equipment, structures, and organizations in a foreign country †¢ level sufficient to obtain significant anagement control – World stock of outward FDI was $19 trillion at the beginning of 2010 (9 times larger than what it was in 1990). 21 Number of International Companies †¢ Keeps expanding and the big get bigger. – ExxonMobil sales for 2011: $486 billion – Wal-Mart sales revenue for 2011: $446 billion 22 Globalization †¢ the process of transformation of local or regional things or phenomena into global ones. – Technological globalization – Political globalization – Economic globalization – Cultural globalization 23 Globalization Economic Globalizati on – is the international integration of goods, technology, labor, and capital. – refers to the implementation of global strategies which link and coordinate a firm’s international activities on a worldwide basis. 24 Drivers of Globalization †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Political Drivers Technological Drivers Market Drivers Cost Drivers Competitive Drivers 1-25 Political – There is a trend toward the unification and socialization of the global community. – NAFTA and the European Union present significant marketing opportunities for companies. the progressive reduction of barriers to trade and foreign investment by most governments. – the privatization of much of the industry in formerly communist nations. 26 Technology – Advancements in computers and communication technology are permitting an increased flow of ideas and information across borders. †¢ The Internet and network computing enable small companies to compete globally. †¢ Business to business commerce is experiencing significant savings by using the Internet for business exchanges. †¢ Foreign outsourcing more and more common 27 Globalization Forces Market – As companies globalize, they also become global customers. †¢ Companies follow customers abroad in order to avoid a competitor stealing the account. – The saturation of the home market also sends companies into foreign markets. – Emergence of global customers 28 Cost – Economies of scale to reduce unit cost are always a management goal. †¢ Globalizing product lines to reduce development, production, and inventory costs can help achieve economies of scale. †¢ Companies can also locate production in countries where production costs are lower. 29Competitive – Competition continues to increase in intensity. – Companies are defending their home markets from competitors by entering the competitors’ home markets to dis tract them. 30 Views On Globalization Arguments Supporting Globalization †¢ Enhances socioeconomic development Concerns with Globalization †¢ Uneven results across nations and people †¢ Promotes more and better jobs †¢ †¢ Deleterious effects on labor and labor standards Decline in environmental and health conditions 1-31 $1. 25 per Euro Crude Oil ($94. 61) Gold ($1,653. 5) Corn ($8. 10 per bushel)

Roman Catholic Church

For the full-scale of culture application to business environment cognitive competencies, this assignment will discuss the culture characteristics, analyses the culture for business operation, study the culture synthesis, and then give recommendations according to the applications of business environment in particular. According the requirement of this assignment, I have chosen the country of Italy to complete the tasks of this assignment. 2. The Background of Italy To understand the culture of Italy better, this part is to introduce the source of the Italy background in details.Thus, this part will illustrate the language, education, religion, social structure, political, and economic philosophy of Italy. 2. 1 Languages of Italy Italian is the official language in Italy. Never the less, the 96% of the native Italians speak Italian. For these partial of native Italians, their main mother tongue are including German, Catalan, Greek, French, Slovenian, Albanian, Corsican, Cambrian, Bav arian, Waller and Croatian. However, half of the total Italian population speak their mother tongue, called regional dialects (quintessential. Co. K, 2014). According to the history records and the geography of Italy, these regional dialects major are including Sicilian, Venetian, Freudian, Neapolitan, Melamine, Sardinian, Clinician, Algerian, and Piedmont. Italy is a free state to educate all nationalities in Italy. For those 3 years old children in Italy, they can start their kindergarten education. According to the European education standards, the children aged 5- 5. 5 years old in Italy are allowed to start their primary school education for 5 years without of examination requirement.They must start their First Grade Secondary School education for 3 years when they are aged 11 to 14, after they past all of the exams, they are allowed to start their Second Grade Secondary School (High School) education, which requires students to pass all of their exams before their graduation, and they will obtain a diploma certificate within 3-5 years according to different faculty requirements (understandingly. Mom, 2014). 2. 3 Religion of Italy According to the source of the Italy history, the main religion of Italy is Roman Catholicism. The Roman Catholicism centre is in the Vatican City, and the pope also stays in it.Islam is the second religion in Italy sources from the immigrants of due to the only few Jews left after the War II (Kim, 2014). 2. 4 Social Structure of Italy In Italy, family is the most valuable social structure, because family can stabilize their family members by supporting each other with emotion and finance. In north of Italy, only the nuclear family stay together normally. But in the south of Italy, the extended family usually stay together. According to the main Roman Catholic religion, you can see the Catholic churches are more than any other country.The religion is high in Italy, and you can see them in many lobbies and buildings, and you will find people's names, trade, and profession are in particular patron saint. The church proclaims transparent hierarchy to Italy. Expect is provided to older people, successful businessman, and well-connected people (quintessential. Co. UK, 2014). 2. 5 Political Ideology of Italy Italy is a republic country since June 1946, voted by plebiscites. Its constitution was created in 1948. The president of Italy take turns to select by the elections of Italians ( inconsiderableness. Com, 2014) 2. Economic Ideology of Italy After the postwar, Italy concentrates to rebuild its economy successfully from being an integral member of NATO & Joining the European Economic Community. However, the left-wing Red Brigades destroyed the stability of Italy from 1970 to the early 1980. Later on, the governments of â€Å"Revolving door† managed Italy an unstable polity from 1980-1990. In Jan 1999, Treasury Secretary Carlo Clamps permitted Italy currency (infeasible. Mom, 2014). Nowadays, the economi cs of Italy is diversified by many industries, and the well-developed industrial in the north are most held by private companies (internationalization. Mom, 2014). Although Italy has experienced the global crisis in 2008, but Italy GAP of Italy increased from IIS$1737. 8 billion in 2004 to US $1982. 94 billion Gag 2014(Satanist. Com, 2014). This part is to analyses the Italy culture from its history and geography. 3. 1 History of Italy To know the history of Italy is to know the culture root of Italy. Basically, Italy has a long history with a solid culture foundation. The historical record of Italy has been started by Indo-European immigrants since 2000 B. C. To 1000 B. C. In its 3rd century B. C. Romans has overthrown Indo-European and dominated the civilization of Etruscan to Italy and with the Rome leadership control until the 4th & 5th centuries A. D. After that, the barbarian has taken the Western Roman Empire. From that time on, many other ethnic groups contended to fragmente d polity for a few centuries. But during this period of 13th to the 16th century, it has made Italy a cultural center for the Western world. Rome Empire has enthroned Italy for total about 22 centuries in its history, which has covered the most of the Italy history (infeasible. Com, 2014).The territories of Sardinia, Naples, and Milan were given to Austria after the Spanish Succession War in the year of 1713, but Austria lost some these territories in the year of 1735. After a few decades in the year 1800, Mr.. Napoleon finally unified Italy and declared himself as the Italy king in 1805. However, he did not last long. After 10 years, Austria dominated its power into a disunited Italy again in the Congress of Vienna. Italians are not convinced by the Austria control and always try to uprisings, but unsuccessfully destroyed by the Austria armies in the year of 1820, 1821, and 1831.As know as the brilliant liberal nationalist, Mr.. Giuseppe Amazing formed the Regiments, which is the f oundation of Italy unity. After that, the patriots of Italy gave the leadership hope on Mr.. Count Camille Did Cavort from the House of Savoy in Sardinia, and who finally united Italy in 1852. He brought his armies to help England and France in the Crimean War from 1853 to 1856. He gains the Lombardy territories in 1859 due to supporting to France in the war to against Austria. In the year of 1860, Sardinia was enlarged by the territories of Roman, Tuscany and Pram from the plebiscite voting.In the same year, Sardinia was enlarged by the territories of Sicily & Naples from Mr.. Giuseppe Garibaldi triumphant return war. In the year of 1861, Italian people finally claimed Victor Emmanuel II to be the king of Italy. In 1886, Venetian attached. On the 20th September 1870, the papal of Rome announced Italy is a unified peninsula which is independent nation under one constitutional monarchy (infeasible. Com, 2014). In the World War l, Italy declared its neutrality. Italy went to the war w ith Allies in 1915 and gained some lands, but Italy put it as the postwar settlement.To rescue Italy from Bolshevism, the dissatisfied Italians were introduced to Fascist Party by a socialist called Mr.. Mussolini in 1919. Mr.. Mussolini conquered Rome and being the prime minister on 28th October 1922. He is the dictator of Italy. In 1935, he attacked Ethiopia for annexation. In 1936, he allied with Doll Hitler in Rome. However, Allies invaded Italy in 1943. The time Mussolini lost dictatorship, and the Fascist Partisans killed him on 28th April 1945. Italy entered a war to attack Germany in 1943. Italians plebiscite voted to have a republic nation in June 1946.According to the peace treaty on 1 5th September 1947, Italian declared to return the lands to Greece and France originally. In 1954, Italy received Tries area west (a 90-square-mile zone) from Yugoslav (infeasible. Com, 2014). Nowadays, Italy is a stable country to build internal business. 3. 2 Geography of Italy According t o the world map segment, the geography of Italy is a unified peninsula country in the south of Europe, and it looks like a boot in the world map (infeasible. Com, 2014). The neighbor countries of Italy are surrounded by Andorra,Monaco, France, Switzerland, Slovenia, Croatia, Albania and Greece. The total size of cities are including Rome, Milan, Naples, Turin, Palermo and Genoa (worldpopulationreview. Com, 2014). Whereby, Rome is the capital city of Italy. From those researches, Italy is one of the countries to do international business with whole of the Europe countries. 4. Recommendation for doing Global Business in Italy This part will give the recommendations for doing business in Italy according to its culture of history, geography, language, education, religion, social structure, political, and economic philosophy. 4.Respect Different cultural customs Although, it is 96% of them are native Italians and speak Italian, but they may have different mother tongue or dialect and cul ture customs. Therefore, we have to respect each of them accordingly. To an international business, knowing the local culture is as knowing the needs of the local people. If you can provide the thing to that area's people, you will have business opportunity. 4. 2 Well-managed Cross Culture Management There are cultural conflicts between cultures. Therefore, international businessmen need to understand the difference and culture conflicts between each of them.Hence, the cross culture management needs to be created and studied by businessman and his staffs. Because you will have contact with local staff and customers, developing a well-managed cross culture management will help the stabilization of the employees and increase your business market share. 4. 3 Follow the religion characteristics of Roman Catholic As we know that the Roman Catholic is one of the largest and biggest religion in Italy, and Italy is the culture centre of Europe. To follow the Roman Catholic characteristics i s one of the best and fastest ways to fit into global international business to the local ND the whole Europe.If you can put your business to fit into the Roman Catholic quickly, your business can be accepted by the Roman Catholics easily. According to the culture study and analysis, I have understood the Italy culture differences to do global business. Therefore, I have learnt the repetitions of respecting the Italians. I have acknowledged the cultural intelligence is one of the important factors to bring the successful international business. This essay have gone through the characteristics of languages of Italy, Roman Catholic church Although it is true that some claim that the Crusades were initially launched to help seal the rift between Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianity, there were essential differences between Christianity in Byzantium and Roman Catholicism that was developing independently. In fact, there were also strained tensions because of a history of the Roman Catholic church claiming wide swaths of territory from the other side through forged documents (Riley-Smith) which purported to claim a lot of Byzantium’s land for the Pope.Political, religious and cultural-economic conditions in the Arab world of the European Middle Ages were superior to those of Europe. The Moors had a history of expansionism into Europe at this point, and the culture of the Islamic world was much more advanced, especially in terms of mathematics, astronomy, and architecture (Allen and Amt).This is also exemplified in the historical clashes between Christianity and Islam, which are portrayed by the author as wor king within different paradigms of involvement in acquired territories throughout the history of the medieval Crusades, the rise of European imperialism, and the present state of affairs. When Urban put out the call to the Crusade, many people signed up. Some signed from a sense of religious duty. At the time, there was a great deal of stagnancy in the social system of feudal Europe too, without a lot of social mobility.The Crusades were an opportunity for some who signed up to improve their social status, political status, and even religious status. There was a lot of diversity among those who responded to Urban’s rousing call.   When interacting with the native populations of the Islamic world of the time, the Christian crusaders acted in different means and capacities, forming alliances with some, and utterly destroying and ransacking others. One interesting interaction was that of the rise of bartering between the Christians and native populations.During this time there was a sort of cultural bartering when the Europeans gave elements of their culture to more Eastern cultures and took some of the elements of the Eastern cultures and made them their own. One of these elements that the Europeans took was the concept of mercantile trading (Madden). Mercantile trading, as opposed to local trading, was more lucrative. There was a lot of anti-Semitism, fear and persecution in the era of the Crusades. Western Christians viewed Jews as another race, not quite human.Jews became aware of the Christians in many cases through persecution, and reacted accordingly. Perspectives of the Crusades varied between those involved in different capacities. Some undoubtedly felt cheated. Arabs generally felt surprised that Jerusalem fell and shocked at the invaders’ manners. Jews felt persecuted and threatened. There was a lot of stereotyping involved on all sides. The new Frankish territories of Outremer reflected their origins in the West in many ways, perhaps t he most obvious of which were cultural and architectural.Of course, with culture being transplanted to another area, there are also elements of hybrid nature to consider, with the Crusaders wanting to approximate new societies distinct from the communities from which they came, but in many cases succeeded in creating a sort of fusion culture based on elements taken from Western impetus and useful other elements in the new environment. REFERENCE Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades a History (second edition) J. Allen & Emilie Amt, The Crusades: A Reader Thomas F. Madden, The Crusades: The Essential Readings

Outline and discuss the evolution of CSR Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Outline and discuss the evolution of CSR - Essay Example This paper explores the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility, tracing its evolution and how businesses implement it as well as how it affects them. II. Definitions of CSR Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) may be perceived in a variety of ways depending on one’s perspective. One commonly accepted definition is as follows: â€Å"The continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of local community and society at large.† - World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 2005 Another definition created by the European Commission (2003) is: â€Å"Responsible business practices that support the three principles of sustainable development: economic growth and prosperity, social cohesion and equity and environmental integrity and protection.† (p.5) III. Principles of CSR The United Nations is the main promoter of CSR. On December 31, 1999, then Secretary General Kofi Annan declared its principles at the World Economic Forum in Davos (Madrakhimova, 2013): 1. Human Rights – Commercial organizations should maintain support and respect for internationally recognized human rights in the creation of their standards of work. The rights to bargain collectively of workers must be upheld. Forced labour and child labour should be eliminated along with any form of discrimination in the workplace. 2. Ecology – Corporations should be conscious of the prevention of environmental problems and diligent in carrying out a more responsible attitude towards the care of the environment. They need to promote technologies and know-how in the reduction of negative impacts of some systems on the environment. 3. Anti-corruption – Corruption in all forms which include extortion, bribery and red tape must be prevented. 4. Legal responsibility – Legal frameworks bound in the territories where the businesses st and must be enforced. 5. Global responsibility – Compliance with international standards of social responsibility 6. Environmental Responsibility – collaboration of businesses and society in the rational use of natural resources, effective management of the environment and public health from the production of environmentally-friendly products. 7. Cultural and ethical responsibility – Compliance with relevant territorial cultural and ethical customs and traditions as well as moral norms followed by employees and other stakeholders. 8. Philantropic responsibility – support and development of the society and of individual marginal groups through voluntary participation in social programs and social and financial investment. IV. Benefits of CSR In a study of Lithuanian development of CSR practices, Spukiene & Urbonien (2011) report the following internal benefits in adopting CSR practices have been recognized: business sustainability; competitive advantage; e asier compliance with legislation; employee loyalty; attraction and retention of qualified employees; increase in productivity, quality and sales; financial improvement and access to capital; and reduction of costs. External benefits from adopting CSR practices were acknowledged as well: improved image and reputation; preservation of the environment; intangible benefits; contribution to Lithuania?s sustainable development; increased visibility; promotion of solidarity in the community; clients? loyalty; and

Marketing in Canada Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marketing in Canada - Essay Example The proposed research paper will attempt to analyze the predominant themes in American marketing, and determine to what degree those themes continued to be used in the Canadian context. As a tentative thesis, this paper presumes that marketing strategies in Canada will, to a great extent, largely resemble marketing strategies that would be used in similar situations in America, and that firms that have both American and Canadian wings do not significantly alter their marketing strategies when advertising similar products or services on both sides of the border, an indication that such marketing strategies retain much of their effectiveness. OVERVIEW OF EARLY FINDINGS As a preliminary step to research, the author evaluated several marketing campaigns launched across both the United States and Canada, from companies with similar placements. At this stage apples-to-apples comparisons of marketing campaigns within a company (the way Ford markets a truck in the United States vs. Canada, f or instance), to attempt to control for the fact that a single company might choose to use similar marketing strategies simply as a cost-saving measures. Research was also conducted into marketing theory, looking into publications that de facto target a US audience as well as explicitly Canadian marketing publications. Throughout this process, some major themes in American marketing have become apparent: gender, patriotism, and technology. Most major marketing campaigns include one of these things to some degree or the other. GENDER Gender plays a major role in many marketing campaigns. Marketers try to connect many different products to the proper performance of gender. This is most clearly demonstrated through explicitly gendered products, such as Dove's normal line versus it's â€Å"Dove for Men† line, which promotes cleanliness as a masculine virtue rather than a feminine one, as is normally shown through marketing in their traditional line. This pattern is also apparent in non-gendered products: beer advertisements for men and for women will be very different from each other, despite being the same product and having many of the same benefits. Gender performance in the United States and Canada are very similar to each other, and one would expect marketing campaigns to feature gender in a similar way. PATRIOTISM Patriotism is rarely expressed explicitly, e.g. â€Å"it is the right thing for your country to buy this product,† - more often patriotism is invoked through connecting the product with demonstrated values of the country, such as strength or constancy, or it is made of products originating in the country. TECHNOLOGIES Technology is the area that might feature a stark difference between Canadian and American strategies. Though the United States, like most developed countries, is increasingly technology heavy, Canadians have proven to be more adept at adapting to social media than Americans. There is a higher percentage of Canadians who have adapted to social media, especially Facebook and Twitter, and they incorporate both of those technologies into their life faster. This might mean that companies need to put greater importance to social media in their

Women and careers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Women and careers - Essay Example Literature does not only show their differences in ideologies but it also reflects the similarities of such ideas among men and women in the past and present times. Today, the interest in the subject is becoming more and more intense as people seek to pursue all the happiness they can have in this world. One movie series that speaks about such especially concerning women is â€Å"Sex and the City†. It portrays the lives of four female friends who openly talk about sex and their relationship. It presents the concerns of women that men often ignore and disregard. Moreover, it also pictures how modern women value work and their womanhood in the pursuit of their happiness. The main characters, Carrie Bradshaw played by Jessica Parker, Kim Cattrall as Samantha Jones, Kristin Davies as Charlotte York and Cynthia Nixon as Miranda Hobbes, in the movie series mentioned earlier perhaps reflects the modern women’s struggles that they often experience as they express themselves and assert their worth in the world. The four women who are all past the age of thirty try to live normal lives as all the others around them do. They work as professionals and compete with men in their work places but they also struggle with them when it comes to their relationships. They have different ideas about love and sex which portrays the different ideas of modern women. For instance, Miranda is presented as a successful corporate lawyer who worked so hard that she has forgotten all about marriage. In her mid-thirty, she was still unmarried. Jones on the other hand is an executive who tries to act like men do, having sex with them like the relationship is not about feelings and emotions or treating each other as lovers. In the first episode of season 1, the character of Jones is presented as the most liberated among the four friends and perhaps reflects many women in modern times who really think that they are competitive with men not only in terms of profession and achievemen ts but also in terms of sex. If men perceive women as sex objects, she believes that women could also do the same as evidenced by her advice to her friends. She even gives an example about how she goes about her relationships, mentioning Drew, an ex-lover whom she slept with for a time in her past and then left him matter-of-factly, forgetting about him just like when one changes her clothes and disposes them (youtube.com). On the other hand, York plays the romantic kind of character who thinks that sex should be expressed with love. She is quite the emotional kind among the friends and often brings about the other concerns, about the more important matters in the issues being raised among their discussions. In the example given above, she reacts with Bradshaw in clear bewilderment saying that they should consider love and romance also. Perhaps the attitude of women acting like men, thinking that they can be as unemotional when it comes to sex is just a facade to show their competit iveness. Although deep inside, women are hurting because they are treated like objects, they tend not to accept it but rather deny that they are really emotionally affected. In effect, they try to act as the men do and show that they can also hurt men. However, along the process, men are also hurt because they are also human beings who have feelings. Bradshaw verbally expressed her being a human being and asserted that she should be treated as such by her lovers like her long time lover, Big and still another lover, Alexander Petrovsky (youtube.com). Although men never show such concern or verbally express such feelings, they are not devoid of feelings so that they also need such attention. However, probably, what makes things

The Hygiene Hypothesis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Hygiene Hypothesis - Essay Example fungi, bacteria, viruses and parasitic microbes) and allergens hinders the normal development of a natural immunity. Consequently, this condition makes an individual to be vulnerable to infectious diseases and allergies. The hypothesis has been put forward as an explanation to the occurrence of many preventable diseases and allergic infections. The following is an analysis seeking to establish accuracy of the hypothesis with the use of a context that features several case studies in the world and the relevant deductions. Accordingly, it is important to note that the immune system develops from repeated attempts to keep off disease from the low level of pathogens found in a normal environment; as such, when the germs invade the body in life threatening amounts, the immune system successfully wards them off. The need for this exposure in developed nations some decades back saw to larger families than today. This is because parents believed that the elder child would expose the younger one(s) to pathogens, hence harden their immunity (Ascherio &Munge, 2007). It has also been observed that children who are taken to baby care institutions are less susceptible to allergies and immune diseases. The research has indicated that, children who had earlier been exposed to measles or hepatitis A are also quite resistant to allergies. Autoimmune diseases are those that the body should be able to naturally protect itself from, as per the hygiene hypothesis. Such include acute lymphoblastic leukemia affecting young people in the developed world. This is a region where young children are less likely to be exposed, and thereby develop the needed immunity. Unconfirmed evidence also links the hypothesis indirectly to autism, suggesting that an immune disease causes it (Lang, et al. 2010). However, extensive research shows that the hypothesis is of more significance to allergies than to immune diseases (Christensen, 2010). Some of the common allergens, i.e. substances that cause al lergic attacks, include pollen, dust, hay, household chemicals, synthetic material, pet fur, some foods and some food preservatives. When these come into contact with the body of the allergic person, his/ her system activates the white blood cells in response to the foreign negative stimulus. (These cells normally help us to fight disease-causing microorganisms). Once released, the white blood cells cause an inflammatory reaction (Christensen, 2010). This reaction is exhibited in various ways e.g. itching, swelling, coughing, asthma, sneezing, running nose, tears etc. Asthma is a chronic condition in which the victim, when exposed to allergens, is unable breathe due to blockage of air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. If no medical attention is availed, patient may collapse or even die. Drugs and inhalers are normally used to control the situation (Christensen, 2010). However, not all scientists concur with the hygiene hypothesis as there is an antithesis to this which is the exposure th eory. The exposure theory suggests that the higher the level of exposure to allergens, the more the possibility for allergies incidence. This theory is based on an observation that people living in urban areas have a higher percentage of allergies than their rural counterparts, and they are more prevalent in the developed than the developing world. Modern day people are more allergic as compared to people who lived some centuries back. While this appears at a glance to be true, large portions of the global population prove otherwise, hence the need for a more comprehensive and convincing explanation (Antony et al., 2006). On the other hand, some scholars support the hygiene hypothesis. A health researcher based in Germany, Dr. Erika Von Mutius investigated the

Macro economics important assingments Assignment

Macro economics important assingments - Assignment Example If the borrowing is made long term it will ease or reduce inflation in the economy of Ghana. The government of Ghana opted to sell the long term bonds in order to get funds for the infrastructure. In 2012 the fiscal deficit of this country increased to 12% of the GDP hence pushed interest rates up. Due to this situation it has been focused that the interest rates will remain high and there will be more transaction of long term bonds (Melvin & Boyes, pp.149) In general to stabilize the economy of this country, a few things need to be done. From the article, it is well spelt out that the Ghana investors are highly attracted to long term bonds. Selling of Long term bonds with high interest is a central bank initiative to control circulation of money and to reduce inflation. In the short run, borrowings have led the state into public debts and increased inflation. The government therefore, sells bonds on long term to invest in infrastructure that can service government debts and reduce t he economies deficit. To ensure stability, the bonds should be sold in a long term and not on short term as many firms may take loans and fail to pay them in time hence creating debts. Therefore, long term bonds should be sold at high interest to reduce inflation and stabilize the money markets. ... There has been decrease in demand of grilled meat as change of weather is unbearable. For this reason consumers have resorted to other alternatives. Reaction: as there has been a fall for demand of barbecue cuts, there have been opting for things like slower cookers and crock pots. In the market the supply of grilled meat has increased as the demand for them has gone low forcing the prices to fall. The lowering of prices is to attract consumers as there is no enough demand to meet the supply. The sales department is therefore forced to export the barbecue products to overseas to meet the dispose of the surplus. It can be derived from the reaction that that change of the season to winter has led to the changes in demand. Most of the consumers prefer to stay in orders than to go to the grill to purchase meat. This in turn decreases its demand automatically and the supply increases. Compared to other meat like chucks and blade the grill meet has changed in its demand. Therefore, the gov ernment opts for other forms of meet as there demand has been maintained. There supply should therefore be increased to compensate for the gap that might have been created by the grill meat (Melvin & Boyes, pp.52) Assignment three Article: http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-04-05/opinions/38300337_1_minimum-wage-fair-labor-standards-act-workers Position: I agree that Stevenson’s assumptions of minimum wage that minimum wage takes care of everyone. The minimum wage always remain the same unless change by the government. If the minimum wage is increased the unemployment increases. The minimum wage cuts across everyone but they vary depending on the terms of employment. The government

Misconceptions about Other Peoples Religions Research Paper

Misconceptions about Other Peoples Religions - Research Paper Example To me, Holi was merely a spring festival that was celebrated in fun and colorful way. Until then, I did not know that this religious festival had some kind of history, and it celebrated the battle between the good and the bad. I was informed by my host that we shall have to come for two days: firstly for the religious service, and secondly for the festivities. The religious service was performed a day prior to Holi and it is called ‘Holi pooja’. It is performed on the day before Holi, called ‘Holika Dahan’. â€Å"People light bonfires on the eve of Holi festival to celebrate the victory of good over bad which is called Holika Dahan.† (SCFI) The religious devotion of the people in that ceremony really inspired me and I could not help relating the phenomenon of victory of good over bad with my own religious faith. I was surprised to feel that the sense of unfamiliarity started to fade away as the service proceeded and I began to understand what the history of Holi was all about. The name Holi comes from a princess named Holika. A story relates that many years ago Holika tried to kill her brother Prahlad. She did so at the instance of her father [who] wanted to be worshipped as a god, but one person stood in his way. That person was his son, Prahlad... [the King] ordered Holika to sit inside a bonfire and hold Prahlad on her lap... Instead of Prahlad being burned to death, it was Holika who perished. (Haze, pp. 20-21) I had not the slightest idea that the history of this religious festival dated back to ancient times and how important the victory of good over bad was important to them. Thus, the bonfires that are lit on the eve of Holika Dahan are a re-enactment of the trial of the good and the bad. Hindus put the effigies of Holika (that symbolizes the bad) and Prahlad (that symbolizes the good).  

Reflective paper 3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reflective paper 3 - Assignment Example I am not in the favor of premarital sex because I uphold old values and customs. But if a couple wants to have a marriage like relationship before the actual marriage then it is up to them. However, I am totally against sleeping around and the derogatory term of ‘casual sex’. If there is a bond that exists between the couple then it is more acceptable than ‘one night stands’ and hooking up under the influence of alcohol. I would tell him that it is better to be safe than sorry. Couples get carried away in the heat of things, and they regret it later. I would tell my boy he is mature enough to make his decisions in life. He is knocking at adulthood. I cannot be his supervisor anymore. But it would make me glad if he abstains from sleeping around. It will make me even happier if he upholds the sanctity of marriage and relationships. Such topics are always careful with girls. Parents are more concerned and protective of them. Men are physically stronger and can take advantage of a vulnerable girl. Parents have this inborn protective instinct to protect their daughters from sexual predators. Naturally, a conversation about premarital sex will be more serious with my daughter. I would tell almost the same things to my daughter as I would tell my son on this topic. But there will be more concern and emotion in my voice. I would try to get her perspective first. I would tell her about the honor and value of the marital bond. I might seem old fashioned, but these customs do give an acceptable structure to the society. If such values are disregarded then the whole family system can collapse. People would only meet each other to satisfy their lust. Marriage would become meaningless and an old forgotten custom. For this reason, I would want to get her take on this subject first. The way my 15-year-old can make her decis ions, so can my daughter. I cannot be around her all her life, nor do I want to. Ultimately she has to

The Kite Runner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Kite Runner - Essay Example nd at the same time enervating bond with his Hazara servant Hassan as evinced by the line â€Å"Did you know Hassan and you fed from the same breast (Hosseini 64).† In that context the dynamics of friendship between Amir and Hassan happens to be strange and peculiar, verging on the borders of what may be called a misplaced sibling rivalry, while at the same time being strengthened by bonds that only could be cast and preserved through blood. At the same time this friendship is marked by strong undertones of guilt affiliated to Amir, owing to his inability to show support and empathy for a friend, who is always willing to go beyond oneself to assure his happiness. This friendship carries the burden of an atrocity that though known to both the friends, born by one and callously sidelined and evaded by the other, never showing any inclination to bring it to the surface. The irony is that even Amir is also aware that Hassan is more than willing to let him go with his evasive stanc e, as he says â€Å"And that was as close as Hassan and I ever came to discussing what had happened in the alley (Hosseini 69).† Being in an immature phase of his life, Amir is totally possessed by the need for soliciting the approval of his father, further bolstered by his innate guilt of jilting Hassan when he most needed his support and sympathy, to the extent that he does not hesitate from planting Hassan in a stealing incident. The burden of the guilt becomes too much of an obsession with Amir and in his conscience he ends up believing that he could only redeem his peace back by pushing Hassan out of his life as he says, â€Å"I want you to stop harassing me. I want you to go away (Hosseini 77).† However, as Amir matures to being a young man in a world far away from Afghanistan, he eventually realizes the need to expunge himself of his guilt and betrayal by going back to Afghanistan to find Hassan’s son. Finally when Amir manages to solicit a lopsided smile from Hassan’s son in climax,

The Arch of Constantine Essay Example for Free

The Arch of Constantine Essay The Arch of Constantine has stood as one of the triumphal symbols in Rome, along with the Triumphal Arch, and the Arch of Titus. It was in 313 A. D, when Emperor Constantine the Great established what is known as the largest arch in Rome, situated near the Colosseum. Through the structure, the reliefs, and the mixture of historic scriptural decoration, the Arch of Constantine communicates a manipulative message of Imperial power. In addition, it is in the Formalist approach: consisting of line, shape and other various features, as well as the Marxist approach: which deals with the manipulation of art by the ruling class and conveying of social messages, that we can witness this message of Roman imperialism. Firstly, in its formalistic attributes, the monument holds a definite symmetrical appearance, consisting of three openings with the middle opening being the center of focus, as it is the largest of the three. As for the arch itself, it is made from pure marble with an evident repetition in components of four: from the columns, to the medallions, and also the Dacian statues on the attic of the monument, which were taken from the time of Trajan. As well, the rest of the arch is lavished with decorations of the original reliefs as well as the reliefs of other emperors from earlier monuments like Hadrian, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius. In turn, the combinations of both old and new reliefs show the history of the Roman military campaign as well as the conflicting mixture of styles and traditions in Rome. When looking at the Arch from an Marxist approach, we can acknowledge its strategic placement in the city of Rome. In turn, we can read the reasoning in the placement of the monument when the theory of Marxism is understood as dealing with the struggle of the working class as well as the alienation of the ruling class. Being situated near the Colosseum and acting as a gate into the Palatine Hill, the Arch allows much public accessibility while the reliefs on the monument remind the public of the achievements and historical events in Rome. However, what is most evident is the constant reminder of the Emperor’s authority, a manipulative message that is perhaps repeated through out the whole arch. In furthering this, the monument was a glorious by pass in commemorating Constantine for his victory over Maxentius, his rival. However, it is also through this Arch that the Roman army travels to enter into battle, as well as returning home in victory. Besides the formal structure of the arch, the reliefs decorated upon it also impose a great notion on the power of the state. Reliefs all around the Arch display a record of military campaigns, conquest and Constantine’s personal qualities. Many of the reliefs are even reused from monuments of earlier emperors, such as the two-framed panels on the attic, originally found on a monument of emperor Marcus Aurelius. Another example is the Dacian statues situated in between the framed panels, while they were originally from a Trajanic monument. These reused imagery were all chosen to demonstrate the success and the official military role of the emperor. By doing so, Constantine hoped to gain some of the same honour and recognition as the earlier emperors did. In addition, the Arch consists of â€Å"Victories†, who are statues of powerful women with wings. Their symbolism is likewise to their name, suggesting to the viewer of Rome’s great success in battles won. In this way, Constantine uses these well-recognized, iconographical figures to interpret ideas to the people of Rome. However, besides the message of conquest, two longer panels are found under the medallions on both sides, illustrating the emperor’s influence on the people. The first panel, known as oratio, shows Constantine giving a public speech in the Roman Forum, suggesting leadership and guidance in the emperor. Within this panel, great emphasis is used to lead the viewer’s focus on none other than Constantine, as heads of Romans are generally turned to face the speaker. The second panel, called donatio, displays the emperor distributing money to the public, also showing the emperor’s influence on the people, and even his ability to provide for Rome at his own expense. In furthering these two panels, it is intriguing to find that the head of Constantine is missing in both pieces. This is due to the fact that his head was made of a different, perhaps finer marble and after time, has disconnected with the rest of the piece. However, despite the renewing of earlier monument figures, the reliefs on the Arch of Constantine no longer follow the same naturalistic styles but have become more abstract and formal. Losing the classicality of former monuments, the heads of individual figures are enlarged and stubbier, while their poses are more repetitive, and their carving is flatter. Yet through out many of the reliefs, the message stays the same, showing the emperor has the sovereign, triumphant one, who dominates in each scene. Furthermore, it is the formalistic attributes of the shape and structure of the arch, as well as the Marxist approach in the mixed reliefs that shape the Arch of Constantine as an icon of imperial power. In addition, much of these aspects that shaped the Arch can be seen in many structures in our world today. As well, the way we read these images can be applied to our modern structures, discovering the hidden agendas and implications in the piece. Likewise, facilities such as the White House or a courthouse can be seen with the same principles as icons of power and control as well as order. Other examples include the no longer existing World Trade Centers, which were the iconographical symbols of capitalism. As well, facilities like many schools and universities display the pride and control of the school staff through posters, banners. We are sometimes reminded of the achievements and respective position of the school as we enter its front doors. Similar to the Arch, these structures literally influenced the public, as people are bound to come in contact with them, walk pass them or even through them. Even sport arenas can be seen in the same light, as many stadiums display their historical success and victories or even legendary leaders. It is clear that the usage of formalistic structure and iconographical imagery, in the light of Marxism, is still relevant today. From propaganda, to commercial advertisements, to authoritative visuals, we are confronted in equally similar ways everyday.

Concepts of Project Management Theories

Concepts of Project Management Theories Projects within the context of product development are temporary, divine, unique, and transient. Irrespective of the different latitude of goal requirement for any organisation, either to conduct organisational change or to create competitiveness from product innovation, the gravity of the challenges encountered was inevitable and attributable to the consequences of diversity, uncertainty (risk), complexity, urgency and integration of the project. To cope with these, much of the established theory and practices emanates from the conventional methodology of PM which was used as a framework of reference. This method is driven to be linear, analytic, reductionistic, deterministic, goal-oriented or waterfall approach. The presumption of this conventional approach is defined by a set of related reductionism of activities (such as work breakdown structure (WBS), cost breakdown structure (CBS), product breakdown structure (PBS) and et cetera) and sequential procedures in which were claimed to be adequately predicted the success rate of projects. Conversely, in most cases, especially complicated, uncertain and complex projects, the conventional PM method consistently exhibits high levels in failure rate in a project-oriented company such as Li Fung (LF). Against this background, an overview of the LFs projects in the context of product development processes that was underpinned by the conventional PM framework was undertaken. An example of an obscure, uncertain and complex project which demonstrated failure in achieving the project goal was presented. This lead to a universal consensus that another new approach has to be deployed in order to achieve high levels of success rate. Align with this setting, evidence can be seen in the development of a holistic and systemic PM in the context of product development such as complex adaptive system (CAS). CAS is characterised by apparent complex behaviour that come to light as a result of non-linear property, spatio-temporal interaction among a large number of component system at different levels of the organisation. CAS also exhibits dynamic properties that could evolve, adapt to the environment. Together, these attributes and characteristic can be associated and established as a valuable construct in the defining, managing and understanding of the project development practices and can help projects be more successful. Ultimately, a conclusion can be drawn that CAS could be beneficial and it can provide the flexibility in managing complexity and uncertainty in product development more successful. The findings also suggest a limitation on the application of the CAS to the context of product development projects. From the evolution to the revolution of the project management (PM) (Morris, PWG, 2013), projects are considered the ubiquitous driving force of organisations to improve its performance regardless of tangible or intangible value (Geraldi J, et.al., 2011; McCarthy P.et.al.,2006). Nonetheless, projects within the context of product developments (PD) in a product-oriented company are imperative to create differentiation and core competency from its competitors. Such importance stimulates the development of a plethora of frameworks and practices (Anderson, et.al, 2005) in order to improve our understanding of PD projects, processes and the management. To support such notion, there are two well-known frameworks which are claimed to be the best practices Bodies of Knowledge (Project Management Institute (PMI), APM, 2008) as well as the UKs Office of Government Commerce standard (PRINCE2) (Aritua B, et.al., 2008). Collectively, these cascade a universal framework for organisational practic es in term of the method, techniques and tools as remedies for implementing successful projects (Geraldi J, et.al, 2011; Vidal LA, et.al., 2008). Conversely, a paucity of success rate can be observed on projects by adopting the conventional PM method (Atkinson R, 1999) and performance improvement is perceived to be elusive (Geraldi J, et. al, 2011). According to the Bodies of Knowledge (PMI, 2008), a project is defined as a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service or result. Consequently, it represents an effort to explore a new horizon. Due to the characteristics of projects unique, divine, novelty, finite, transient, multi-disciplinary, complex, dynamic and high risk, (PMI, 2008) has delineated a structural dimension with two components of approaches the product life cycles (PLC) and the management process. The PLC consists of five-step processes ranging from inception stage, feasibility, design, execution and completion stage (waterfall approach). At each stage of the project, it is required to follow a management process which comprises planning, control, organise and implement the process (PMBOKÂ ® Guide, 4th Ed 2008, p. 78). Predominantly, these methodologies are analytic, systematic, descriptive, linear, structured, sequential approach (Aritua B, et. al, 2007; McCarthy IP, et. al, 2006). Due t o the linearity property of the frameworks, the conventional PM can be conceived as an ordered, sequential and relative predictable predetermined sets of activities and dependencies (Bonner, et.al, 2002; Levardy V, et.al, 2009). Additionally, the conventional approach also makes an insidious assumption about the goal of a PD project that is known and fixed (Levardy V, et. al., 2009). By contrast, in most cases of the PDs goals and destination are rarely distinguishable, obscure and undetermined. Above and beyond, some complex factors such as elements of flexibility, uncertainty (risk), informality, feedback (interdependency and interrelationship) and autonomy might influence the project have been discounted (McCarthy IP, et. al, 2006, p. 438). These restraints may inhibit the projects ability to reach a goal. And yet, these methods are fairly well-suited to managing an isolated single project (Aritua B, et.al, 2007) and lower level of uncertainty (Kapsali M, 2011). To encapsulate, t he conventional methods of PM in term of PD deliver less value in defining, understanding, and managing complex, multi-disciplinary, ambiguous, uncertain and complicated projects. Against this background, a new holistic approach known as Complexity Adaptive System (CAS) has caught the momentary attention and it has been increasingly used as a lens to understand the complexity of the project development (Levardy V, et.al., 2009) especially in the realm of product development (PD) (McCarthy IP, et.al., 2006). In brief, Complex Adaptive System (CAS) defines to a complex system with an adaptive element that displays complex behaviour. With this introduction, the structure of this article is as follows. First, it provides an overview of the project-oriented organisation Li Fung (LF)s projects setting within the context of the organisational setting in project development. An illustration of a project called Battery-operated maker was outlined. Then, in the literature review, both Linear and CAS framework will be defined and elucidated in detail. Comparison between both will be delineated. Next, the recommendation to be provided. Finally, the article concludes by encapsulating the findings. Different business organisation-specific proposition will influence the multi-variant of project activities. Correspondingly, Li Fung (LF) is a global supply chain organisation that commend one stop supply-chain solutions for product design development, material sourcing, factory evaluation, production, manufacturing and quality control, as well as inbound and outbound global logistic (LF.com.hk, 2017). PM essentially is the lynchpin of the organisation to innovate and to change in accordance with the contemporary business need and the ever-changing market environment. Archetypally, the most salient characteristic of LF project complexity superimposed with Baccarini (1996) definition in term of organisational complexity (related to organisational hierarchical structure, levels, specialization et cetera) and technology complexity (associated with the operation, characteristic of material and knowledge). Herein the elements of complexity invariably induce complexes and complicatedness on the project. Against this setting, LF typified a PM methodology in which underpinned primarily on the conventional PMBOKÂ ® Guide (PMI, 2008) with a set of theories, principles, and practices as a frame of reference. In essence, the methodology encapsulated project cycle, budgeting, risk and manage each phase of the projects. This approach deeply rooted in current management practice. A centralized project organisational structure was established to translate proper instruction and management to the operation of the project. This was thought could efficiently and effectively facilitated projects within the organisation. In the similar vein, LF collaborated with Creative Memories (CM) to develop a project called Battery-Operated Maker (BO). The project goal was to develop a new revolutionary product which could attain the key stakeholders (CM) business and market demand. Project success was associated with achieving the project goals in which linked to the Iron Triangle Cost, Time and Quality (Atkinson R, 1999, p. 337). In another elucidation, the BOs project scouted for product differentiation, performance and functionality from any available product in the market. Due to the uniqueness of the project, it required a significant degree of technological complexity. As cited by Baccarini (2008), technology is a multi-dimensional and can be categorized into three aspects operational (equipping and sequencing of activities), characteristics of materials as well as utilization of knowledge and skills (Baccarini D, 2008). Pertaining to this discernment, evidence can be seen that BO project required ident ification of risk, development of the implementation of risk management, detail product planning, process control over the activities, and a formalized communication process. Naturally, the project depended on the role of the project manager (actors or agent) who entrusted on the goals of the projects. The project manager was requested to develop stable and predictable work processes and then improved those work processes over time through increased quality, reduced costs, and shorter delivery times. Habitually, the project undertook typical multiple process phases from the initial processing phase, Planning Process Phase till Execution Process Phase. In each of the phases, a series of predetermined activities have been determined. Not surprisingly, a major discrepancy and the deficiency were discovered during the execution stage, despite a systematic implementation steps and phases of the product cycle had been undertaken. Technically, the BO Maker could not fulfil the basic product functionality requirement or specification. Evidently, the non-systemic techniques including risk evaluation and management were incapable to encapsulate what need to be managed. Additionally, the conventional PM was solely focused narrowly on individual functions and tasks. In the end, the project ended with customer termination. The failure epitomized the concern and triggered a consensus that the current non-systemic, linear and reductionistic method had stretched to the limit, and another approach and perspective in understanding and managing the complexity of projects has to be instigated. Thus far, there are commonly a handful types of frameworks that were encapsulated with the aim of interpreting and understanding PD Linear, Recursive, Chaotic and CAS (McCarthy IP, et. al., 2006). In this section, due to the scope of the review, the restriction is given to Linear and CAS framework. Linear PD framework originates from the conventional PM methodology that emphases on a series of steps, phases and multifunctional activities which are sequential and discrete (McCarthy I.P, et. al., 2006). Best known linear PD framework is Project Management Book of Knowledge (PMBOK). PMBOKÂ ® Guide (PMI, 2008) outlines a set of theories, principles, efficiency and control practices as a frame of reference which navigate throughout the project cycle and manages by coordinating each phase of the projects. The processes were determined by the communication, cooperation and coordination of the teams that participated in the PD process (PMI, 2008). The critical assumption of the linear PD framework is that through a predetermined set of activities and dependence, the goal of the PD can be achieved effectively (Bonner, et.al, 2002; Levardy V, et.al, 2009). However, as per stated in the definition of a project, it represents an attempt to achieve a projects goal that is still uncertain, complex and ambiguous. In the main, the conventional theories and practices incapable to distinguish all of the disparate risk and uncertainty surrounding projects (Steward R, et.al, 1995). As such, this resonates with negative perspective that why so many projects failed. A survey conducted by KPMG Canada 1997 (calleam.com, Aug 2016) shows a staggering statistic of 61% surveyed organisations have suffered an unsuccessful failure rate. Even though linear framework can reveal any inappropriate process structure can deteriorate or even jeopardise any PD project, however, this reductionist technique inclined to disregard other contributing factors such as elements of interaction between disparate risk (Steward, R, et.al, 1995), flexibility, informality, feedback and autonomy (McCarthy IP, et. al., 2006). On the other side of spectrum, in response to the uncertainty, ambiguous, complexity of a new PD as well as unclear path to a projects designated goal and objective, this has triggered the consensus that the current conventional methodologies of the project development (PD) is insufficient and inappropriate to cope and adapt to the ever-changing environment pace (Vidal AL, et. al, 2008). Profoundly, PD is a non-linear and iterative sequence process (Levardy, et.al., 2009). According to numerous works of literature, a project can be considered as systems (Vidal A.L, et. al, 2008; Baccarini, 1996). A system is a perceived whole whose elements interconnected together because they continually affect each other over time and operate towards common purposes (Senge P, et.al, 2011). Alternatively, Vidal Ludovic (2008) contended that project complexity is the property of a project which makes it difficult to understand, foresee and keep under control its overall behaviour even when given a complete information about the project system. Its drivers are factors related to project size, project variety, project interdependence and project context. (Vidal A.L, et.al, 2008) Whereas, David Baccarini competed that their complexity is defined as consisting of many varied interrelated parts and can be operationalized in terms of differentiation and interdependence through the concept of organisational and technological complexity (Baccarini D, 1996). Not surprisingly, the above interpretation of complexity mirrors systems theory and it shares a lot of commonalities. Systems that exhibit the characteristic of complexity theory is known as a complex adaptive system (CAS) (Aritua et. al, 2009, p. 76). In another elucidation, in accordance to Plsek and Greenhalgh (2001, p.625), a CAS is a collection of individual agents with the freedom to act in ways that are not always totally predictable, and whose action are interconnected so that one agents action changes the context for other agents. In numerous kinds of literature (Aritua et al (2009), Dooley K (1997) and Lansing J.S (2003)), it is distinguishable that the attributes and the characteristic of a CAS can be summarised in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Attributes and characteristics of CAS Hence, in an organisational context, the major antecedent in a CAS model is the individual agents which are the interaction of all the stakeholders customers, project manager, suppliers, internal team members as well as the external market environment. And yet, adaptation or emergence is the major consequence (Holden, 2005). Emergence is referred to as global patterns of organisation behaviour which are established out from the local self-organisation as a consequence due to the interactions of the systems as opposed to predetermined or deterministic (Levardy V, et.al, 2009; Dooley K, et.al, 1997). Through the macro level of the organisation to the micro level, emergence can be observed as the system carries out the process of selection upon the agents that bring about the whole organization functioning (Dooley K, et.al, 1997). Henceforth, this fosters a complex dynamic between individual or micro level (bottom-up) and organisation or macro level (Top-down). The interaction between both systems are different in schemas, but are interdependent (Dooley, K, et.al, 1997). These dynamic and interdependent interactions render the global coherent pattern of organisation. In sum, these dimensions demonstrate how CAS diverges from linear systems. Fundamentally, these constructs provides a backbone of understanding project management in complex, uncertain and complicated environment. By comparing and contrasting between conventional linear PD methodologies such as PMBOK Guide in particular versus the new methodology of CAS there are significant differences between them. The differences can be demonstrated in Table 3.2. Table 3.2 Comparison between Linear versus CAS framework of PD By contrasting between Linear and CAS approach of PD, it is self-evident to elicit that both have distinctive variation and methodologies. Through literature review, it is self-evident that the conventional PD methodology has significant limitations. The critical problem of the conventional PD is viewing the project as isolation with closed-loop boundary. Additionally, this methodology was predisposed by a set of theory that pre-specifying phases or steps of the processes to be undertaken through a series of control and management tools to evaluate the cost-quality-time. This resonates with the assumption of rationality due to cause-effect thinking and linearity about the control and boundaries. Nonetheless, it also disregards other essential elements such as flexibility, informality, feedback and autonomy that may affect the PD. Table 4.1 Restriction of Linear Approach versus Complement CAS framework of PD Â   Â   By contrast, in light of the complexity and uncertainty nature of the project, a CAS framework offers a powerful and useful insight in understanding the PM. By adopting the CAS framework, it is to recognize that project management within the context of PD processes are systems with agents that are interconnected through a nested network. Each subsystem or elements have the ability for autonomous decision making. Align with this notion, in the LF organisational setting, the CAS takes into account of the whole system elements such as CM, Project Management Teams, Market, Environment dimension. Furthermore, the most salient considerations are the interactions between each of the elements are semi-structures (Brown and Eisenhardt, 1997). Apart from above generic properties, it is worth noting that there are some other key insights claimed for CAS structure which are imperative in understanding the CAS framework (Chan, 2001). These are listed as follows. Distributed Control In lieu of highly structured and tightly coupled (Linear) which propagate high level of efficiency, the LF organisational structure between all the stakeholders are deliberated to be relatively unstructured and uncoupled. The resultant behaviour of the systems is due to the interrelationships between the stakeholders in the project. In other word, there is no single centralized structures that manage the overall systems behaviour under the CAS framework. Connectivity As a result of interrelationship, interaction collectively, independence as well as inter-connectivity of the system, subsystem, elements and its environment, these contribute partly to the project complexity as opposed to typical technology and organisational context of complexity. This signifies that a decision or action by one of the elements in the system will affect all other related elements, subsystem and ultimately the overall system. Adaptation and Co-evolution In response to perturbations and change, elements in a system has the capacity (semi-autonomous) to synchronize and desynchronize (also known as self-organisation) in order to adapt within their environment. Through adaptation, the systems will evolve to reveal the desired characteristic that inclined to the success of the project goals or objectives. In the LF organisation context, rather than capitulate to mechanistic prediction and quantitative analysis of conventional PM methodology, the intention is to lay prominence on the qualitative dynamical trajectories on the whole system (Garnsey, E, et.al, 2006). Sensitive Dependence The interaction between elements is in non-linear fashion (Aritua B, et. al, 2007; McCarthy IP, et. al, 2006). In another sense, CAS are sensitive and small changes can have a surprisingly counterintuitive influence/implication to the overall behaviour in the form of butterfly effect or complying with Power Law Distribution rather than following the normal Gaussian Distribution (Garnsey, E, et.al., 2006). Similarly, this phenomenon signal a fruitful understanding the repercussion of the reciprocal interaction between any elements of the stakeholder in LF project setting either in reinforcing or balancing feedback loop. Thus, in real project setting, the emergent behaviour of the project is fundamentally unpredictable in nature. As opposed to Linear approach, long-term prediction and control are not essential to be practicable in CAS framework. Far-from-Equilibrium Attributable to the non-linear nature of the dynamical system, any change in processes happens far-from equilibrium, in contrast with linear system that accepted the concept of a system having equilibrium (Newtonian Paradigm) (Dooley, K, 1997). It is clear that the crux of this argument centers on how opened systems are obligated to discover any opportunities that might create different structures and new patterns of relationship as opposed to isolated systems evolve toward equilibrium, an unchanging state. On the other side of the spectrum, it could be also observed that CAS posits some limitation. Firstly, it does not depict the operational detail. Moreover, it is very challenging to understand or even visualizing by modelling the collective behaviour pattern of the organisation. In addition, the most salient observation is that since the process consequences are random, this lead to misconception that it is therefore unpredictable. Â  Given the rise of the present complexity and uncertainty environment, the application of the CAS framework to the evolutionary changes in PM, as opposed to the Newtonian paradigm that based on linear theory, has caught substantial attention. Based on literature review, the conventional PM (prescribed projects as simple, linear, centralised, reductionistic, deterministic, predictable, decomposability) provides less value to the contemporary nature of projects. This resonates to the assumption that the conventional PM initiative is over-emphasizing on the process efficiency and effectiveness by achieving the basic Iron-Triangle requirement. On the other hand, the literature review proposes and supports that CAS framework takes a more holistic, interdisciplinary approach to the development of complex projects. Having said that, through the inherent properties of non-linearity, self-organising as well as the co-evolution that cascades the emergent order of the system, this leads to believe that the complex system is essentially challenging to predict with enough veracity. These attributes are the essential elements in understanding on how to manage projects. Obviously, it is self-evident that it is to define CAS is broad, complicated and often difficult to grasp. Besides, CAS has often been misunderstood that due to randomness, the system cannot be predicted.

Making money whilst travelling

Making money whilst travelling 1.Get Sponsored to Travel! Getting sponsored is an innovative and new way to travel around the world. By using fundraising sites such as Kickstarter, GoGetFunding, and FundRazr, you can raise all of your travel and expense costs to travel the world for free – all you have to do is to have an idea and to develop a proposal. Crowd funding means using the resources of the crowd (that means you, me, and the billions of other users on the net) to finance your project. All it takes is for everyone to sponsor or donate a dollar, and before long, you can have thousands of dollars to fulfill your dreams! When you upload your proposal, you can set the time span that you want it to run for, usually somewhere around 1–3 months. During this time of marketing your idea, you will receive steady bids and sponsors, with people offering to pledge as little as 5 dollars or as much as $500! When you set up your proposal, you get to describe the different funding options. These are usually organized into levels, with different bonuses or advantages to each level. You might set the lowest option at $10 and the highest at $1500! Each funding level should have a perk or advantage for the patron. Perhaps, you want to offer them a personalized guide brochure or limited-release prints or pictures of your travels. Some inventive proposals even offer T-shirts courtesy of CafePress, key rings, or mugs courtesy of Zazzle.com. Be inventive! The better the prize, the more likely you are to get funded! 2.Write a Travel Guide Why not get paid to travel around the world? One of the ways that you can do this is by writing travel guides, for which you either will have your transport fees paid for you or will be paid in retrospect. If you have ever heard of the Lonely Planet guide series, then you will know just how popular and successful travel writing is. In today’s world, there are now many more opportunities to become a travel blogger, or someone who writes articles and short journal pieces about where they are and what is happening to them for travel and adventure websites. If you manage to land a major gig like working with Lonely Planet, then they will often pay your travel costs for you to locations that they need updated books for. 3.Review Hotels An increasingly popular way to travel or more accurately to get paid to travel is to review travel locations. The theory is simple; hotels, hostels, and BnBs are always looking for positive reviews, so much so that they will ask online copywriters to write fake adverts for them if they are forced to! Remember that a negative review – just one – on an online travel site can sink or seriously damage hotels’ profits that season, so they need a constant stream of positive reviews from travelers just like yourself. If wine reviewers and restaurant critiques get paid to write professional reviews, then why shouldn’t you do too, as a professional world traveler? The first thing you have to do is to start an online blog or review site, talking about your experiences around the world. If you run an attractive, professional-looking blog with complimentary pictures, true stories offering well-sourced information, and links, then the chances are that you are already offering just the sort of service that a hotel needs. What makes your proposition even more attractive is if you have an engaged readership and an established presence on social media sites such as Twitter, Facebook, Google, or Pinterest. One of the most important things that you can do to achieve your goal is to research your destination. If you are going to travel to any of the world’s major cities, then you will be looking at hotels, holiday apartments, and studios, most of which will have websites. More rural locations will probably mean BnBs, resorts, or estate houses. Always go direct to the website or hotel itself rather than through a third party. The closer you get to the owner, the better chance you are likely to have of making an impression! Remember to only target places to stay that you actually want to stay in! There’s no point settling for accommodation that you know you might hate, and thus, you and they have a bad experience! A part of this is also selecting places that suit your travel style – whether adventurous, luxurious, self-catered, and family. Choose accommodation that already has some sort of social media presence, even if it is only a website and a Twitter. These are the ones who are actively going to be aware and familiar of travel blogging. Medium to large hotels and resorts are more likely going to have spare rooms that need filling than small, family-run BnBs. To put it bluntly, the small, family-run business probably depends on every individual visitor’s income! 4.Free Transport Abroad Now that you are abroad on your free holiday, something to think about is how you plan to travel from one place to another. If you didn’t bring your own vehicle as a form of community taxi or car delivery, you’ll have to find ways to get about which isn’t going to burn a hole in your pocket! How to Travel Abroad on the Cheap! Hitching: Hitching is still the number one resort for groups of travelers, but not generally advisable for single travelers. If you are traveling as a couple or as part of a group, then I would certainly recommend it. If you are staying at a hostel or on a farm, you will probably find that there are others there who are willing to hitch, and you should soon get a lift to where you want to go. You will probably find that the further into the developing world that you travel, the more that hitching becomes a natural mode of travel, as many people cannot afford to own or run cars and instead operate them collectively and expect to give hitchhikers a lift. As ever, you should always keep your wits about you and keep your money secure in a money purse when traveling. Walk or Cycle: Remember that the cheapest and easiest way to see the world is under your own steam! Many European cities now offer bike rental schemes, where you can unlock a free bike at just the cost of a pound or token, which you will get back as soon as you finish with your bike. There is always walking too – the best way to see a city! 5.Where to go for free? While the travel, flights, and the accommodation are usually the biggest obstacles to your goal of traveling for free, the next most important concern is how you are going to survive and what you are going to do while you are out there. If you are already using one of the schemes like WWOOFing or hosting, then the chances are you already have got access to meals and a kitchen or indeed are even getting paid! It is worth, however, taking advantage of these other free opportunities. Remember to Find the Free Days: Most of the world’s biggest attractions such as the Guggenheim or the Louvre have free days. This is usually part of their civic requirement for their own state- or government-level funding, so why not take advantage of this? By looking through the museum or attractions’ own website (sometimes only by signing up for a newsletter), you will be told when the free days, nights, or mornings are. There is almost always once a month and more around Christmas time! Special Promotions: Remember that most attractions bring in not only tourists from abroad but also visitors from their host city and have to market to their host city. Remember to check local newspapers (i.e., if you can read the language) and the notice boards for special promotions, free meal tickets, and discounts. Most of these kinds of offers are coupon deals, so all that you have to do is cut out the coupon and offer it at the desk of where you are going!

The Death Penalty: Justifiable Essay -- essays research papers

The Death Penalty: Justifiable -Preface: Let it be noted now that this speech is very opinionated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I strongly believe that the Death Penalty is a form of punishment to be used when needed. Which opens up the question, when should it be used? That may be the breaking point in a lot of arguments, deciding when to use the death penalty is a very touchy subject. I believe that only murderers deserve the death penalty, but I do not believe that all murderers should receive it as punishment. In cases where someone was killed in self defense, the 'murderer' should not receive the death penalty. But when someone is killed in cold blood then there should be a consideration. Again, not all cold blooded murderers should receive it. Premeditated and sometimes on the spot murders are also candidates, but that depends on how the victim was treated before the murder. Was he/she abused or tormented in a severe way? Or was the victim raped? I would also take into account, the number of people killed by the murderer. Those are not the only things to take into account, but I will stop here.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was August 3, the year was 1986. A man named Esquel Banda had just raped, stabbed and strangled a 74 year old widow by the name of Merle Laird in her own house. Banda then sucked the blood from the woman's mouth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Does that describe a kind, gentle man, who is not a threat to society? A ma...

McDonalds Case Analysis Essay -- Mcdonalds business Case Analysis Ess

McDonald's Case Analysis I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Objectives McDonald's mission was to provide customers with quality food at a low price with a focus on the speed, service and cleanliness they received while patroning one of their restaurants. The case focuses on a specific segment of the McDonalds restaurant chain that was opened in 1996, McDonald?s India. This segment of the restaurant giant had a more specific mission/philosophy to fulfill and had developed a special menu for these Indian customers to take into account their culture and religion. When it was realized that beef extracts were found being used in producing McDonald?s fries, outraged vegetarians and Hindus across the United States and Canda filed a class action lawsuit. Along with this, riots and demonstrations at restaurants in India took place, with mobs calling for the closure of all McDonald?s in India. II.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Customer Scenario   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By 2001, McDonald?s had expanded its operations to 116 countries with a total of over 30,000 restaurants. McDonald?s sold to over 15 billion people every year! The company?s target market encompassed everyone as they tried to offer menus that accommodated fast food lovers, vegetarians, the health-conscious as well as different religious sects. III.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nucleus of Control   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  McDonald?s restaurant chain is comprised of company owned restaurants as well as franchised restaurants, which make up over 65% of the operating McDonalds outlets; because of this many of the restaurants are controlled and run separate from one another. The whole segment of McDonald?s India has a board of managing directors that oversee McDonald?s operations in India. From a management standpoint, McDonalds can be seen to have different varying stances. The company can be viewed as a mature company that was introduced over 65 years ago and now encompasses virtually the entire globe with its operations. However, it seems that McDonald?s, large in size already, keeps expanding internationally as well as in the United States. While many of these newly opened restaurants are separately run franchises, it seems that while the McDonald?s name and idea may be mature, the company as whole seems to still have a growing, entrepreneurial stance. IV.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Functional Analysis A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Top Management The company was started by two brothers, Richard and Maurice McDonald and was later purchased by a curr... ... marketing department. This would help to combat major catastrophes from happening and leading to more allegations and lawsuits. 3. Create a separate department within the company to keep consistency among the many McDonald?s franchises. While this would be a great tool in the overall operation of the company, there are probably too many franchises to be able to carry it out in a cost effective manner. VII.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Recommendations Both alternatives one and two should be combined for the overall success of improving McDonald?s corporation. Marketing has done a terrible job in many areas and could use a fresh start, but must rely on top management for the ultimate say. VIII.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Implementation These alternatives can be put into place effective immediately. They should not bear large costs, with any costs relying soley on the hire of new employees and/or top management to compensate for the extra workload. The most important benchmark to judge our decisions will be customer satisfaction. This can be done simply by surveys, online or focus groups. In the long term the benefits may be seen on a larger scale by viewing the perception of the company in the US as well as globally.

Our Town :: essays research papers

Our Town, by Thornton Wilder, is an American classic, expressing with warmth and humor the eternal truths of human existence. It is a heartening, compassionate glimpse of that time before the Great Wars; before our innocence was lost forever. From the time of its first performances in 1938, it has continued to be regarded as one of the best representations of life in America and of the richness of our theatre world. For decades it has remained a landmark of theatrical craftsmanship and a loving picture of American life. Winner of the Pulitzer Prize, Our Town depicts pathos set against a background of centuries of time, social history, and religious ideas. As the Stage Manager (who functions as a Greek chorus in the drama) says: "This is the way we were in our growing-up and in our marrying and in our doctoring and in our living and in our dying." Our Town is set in 1901 in Grover's Corners, New Hampshire, where the Gibbses and the Webbs are neighbors. During their childhood George Gibbs and Emily Webb are playmates and their lives are inextricably woven together as neighbors' lives are likely to be. But as they grow older they pass into a state of romantic (and embarrassing) interest in one another. George proposes to Emily in the drug store over an ice cream soda, and they are married with all the good folks of Grover's Corners in attendance. But George and Emily's happiness is short-lived. Emily dies in childbirth and is buried in the town's cemetery on a rainy, dreary day. There she is reunited with those friends and neighbors who have died before her, and who help her acclimate herself to her new existence. In one of the most vital scenes in modern theatre, the peace and quiet of death, which can never be understood by the living, is portrayed. Our Town is not just about Emily and George and, indeed, is not just about a small town in northern New England a hundred years ago. Our Town is a play about what we (and Thornton Wilder) thought America and Americans were. As we are about to take a head-long leap into the next century we are forced, not only to look ahead to what we might become, but to turn and look back at what allowed us to arrive at this threshold of the new millennium.

Bullying and Cyberbullying Essay

Introduction Each day school children learn valuable skills and lessons from their teachers as well as through interactions with their peers. Although school, undoubtedly, is beneficial to America’s youth, there are some experiences, such as bullying, that may negatively affect and stick with these children for the rest of their lives. Certain children find an outlet for their frustrations through bullying others. In the past, these actions could be better controlled because they were limited to face-to-face interactions. However, in recent years, this age-old conflict has matched the pace of technological evolutions, making it more dangerous and harder to contain. Cell phones, social media sites, chat rooms, and other forms of technology have allowed bullying to expand into cyberspace. This new form of abuse is known as cyberbullying. The following research paper focuses on both traditional bullying and cyberbullying. The paper provides background information about bullying, defines the p roblem and where it is focused, looks at the clinical and legal issues that surround both forms of bullying, and discusses possible preventative programs. II. History of Bullying Bullying, a definition The word â€Å"bully† can be traced back as far as the 1530s. (Harper, 2008). In its most basic sense bullying involves two people, a bully or intimidator and a victim. The bully abuses the victim through physical, * Keywords: bullying, cyber bullying, law, statistics, preventio Abstract Bullying has been engrained in American society since the country’s founding. Bred from a capitalistic economy and competitive social hierarchy, bullying has remained a relevant issue through the years. Technological bullying, known today as cyberbullying, has allowed the problem to expand, become more elusive, and even harder to define. A thorough analysis of various case studies, statistical research, law cases, and news articles was conducted to understand the issue of cyberbullying and to find preventative measures that should be taken. This paper illuminates the background situation, current legal struggles, clinical implications, and potential preventative steps concerning bullying and cyberbullying alike. II. History of Bullying Bullying, a definition The word â€Å"bully† can be traced back as far as the 1530s. (Harper, 2008). In its most basic sense bullying involves two people, a bully or intimidator and a victim. The bully abuses the victim through physical, * Keywords: bullying, cyber bullying, law, statistics, prevention Email: rdonegan 34 — The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications †¢ Vol. 3, No. 1 †¢ Spring 2012 verbal, or other means in order to gain a sense of superiority and power. These actions may be direct (i.e. hitting, verbally assaulting face-to-face, etc.) or indirect (i.e. rumors, gossip, etc.). Origins of bullying The desire to survive is instinctual and common among all living things. Survival is associated directly with competition due to the multitude of species and limited natural resources on the planet. Since the beginning of time there has been a constant drive to out-perform others and overcome obstacles. This survival instinct, along with a competitive atmosphere, has remained the same as the human race has evolved. Both of these forces have flowed over into the educational, social, and economic realms. This competitive hierarchy, though prevalent in most societies, varies across cultures depending on their ethical systems, traditions, and the type of control exerted by the government. Unfortunately, the U.S. capitalistic society inadvertently pushes the belief that success and wealth go hand in hand. This ideology has shaped a nation where bullying is unintentionally instilled as a survival tactic from a very young age. From the time an American child enters grade school, he or she is taught to be the best he or she can. This seemingly innocent lesson can morph as a child develops throughout his or her education. Students often learn corrupt ways to get ahead in the highly competitive educational and social environments that grade school presents. These bullying tactics may include pressuring others for answers on assignments to attain higher grades, which leads toward better college opportunities, or spreading social rumors about fellow students. These tactics are dangerous because once a student realizes their effectiveness, he or she may construct a life style from them. Developing a habitual use of bullying tactics can lead to negatively affecting a countless number of people as well as corruption in the workplace. Traditional bullying vs. cyberbullying Technology’s progression is often equated with the advancement of human societies. Pivotal innovations, such as the Internet, have forever changed how people interact. Though these developments have allowed the human race to make great strides in many fields, they have also allowed forms of transgression to become more rampant and widespread. This is evident when considering how traditional bullying has evolved into an issue today known as cyberbullying. While bullying and cyberbullying are often similar in terms of form and technique they also have many differences. Unlike traditional bullying, cyberbullying allows the offender to mask his or her identity behind a computer. This anonymity makes it easier for the offender to strike blows against a victim without having to see the victim’s physical response. The distancing effect that technological devices have on today’s youth often leads them to say and do crueler things compared to what is typical in a traditio nal face-to-face bullying situation. A technological evolution As technology has evolved, bullying has proliferated. With the advent of the Internet, chat rooms soon followed. Online forums provided a communal breeding ground for youth to assault one another (Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 2008). Chat rooms were supplemented by AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), an online communication program that allowed teens to spend hours talking to one another in private, one-on-one conversations or in public chat rooms. The program further allowed youth to create group-specific chat rooms. This exclusive forum allowed for youth to get together with select groups of friends and talk about the latest gossip. Online innovations have continued due to telecommunication advances. The advent of cell phones in the late 1960s and early 1970s changed the way people communicated (Shiels, 2003). However, these portable communication devices did not become widespread, or make it into a majority of youth’s hands, until the appearance of the second generation of digital network phones in the 1990s. After that, they spread like wildfire. According to a study conducted by the Pew Research Center, 75% of 12-17 year-olds own cell phones, which increased from 45% in 2004 and one-in-three teens sends 3,000 text messages per month (Lenhart, 2010). Though many parents believe that they are purchasing a cell phone for their child for protective reasons, the opposite may be true as many youths admit to utilizing their phones as an instrument for cyberbullying. Further progress on the Internet brought about more and more websites and with this came the advent of social media. The site MySpace is often considered the pioneer of social media. MySpace allows individual users to create their own unique profiles and interact in cyberspace with friends and foes alike Bullying and Cyberbullying by Richard Donegan — 35 III. Status of cyberbullying as â€Å"when someone repeatedly makes fun of another person online or repeatedly picks onanother person through email or text message or when someone posts something online about another person that they don’t like† (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010c, p. 1). Victimization According to their results, cyberbullying victimization rates have varied in the past few years, ranging between 18.8 percent in May 2007 and 28.7 percent in Nov. 2009 with a mean of 27.32 percent based on 7 different studies from May 2007-Feb. 2010. Cyberbullying offending rates have varied in a broader spectrum than victimization rates, ranging between 20.1 percent in June 2004 and 11.5 percent in Nov. 2009 with a mean of 16.76 percent based on 7 different studies from June 2004 to February 2010 (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010g, p. 1). Several specific types of victimization and cyberbullying were discovered through a survey taken in 2010. The survey discovered that the highest concentration of victimizations and cyberbullying offenses occurred in the following areas respectively: mean or hurtful comments posted online (14.3%, 8.8%), rumors online (13.3%, 6.8%), threats through a cell phone text message (8.4%, 5.4%) (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010e, p. 1). Another important factor that Hinduja and Patchin brought to light was what type of technology a teen primarily uses. According to a 2010 study, which asked teens what role technology played in their daily lives, cell phones were used the most (83%), followed by the Internet for school work (50.8%), and then Facebook (50.1%) (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010h, p. 1). This points to cell phones and the Internet as the two primary mediums used for cyberbullying. Cyberbullying proved to vary by gender as well. Based on a 2010 study involving a random sample of 2,212 teen males and 2,162 teen females, the male to female ratio varied the most in the following three areas: victimization within a person’s lifetime (16.6% for males vs. 25.1% for females), admitted to a cyberbullying offense within a person’s lifetime (17.5% for males vs. 21.3% for females), and had a hurtful comment posted about oneself online (10.5% for males vs. 18.2% for females) (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010b, p. 1). This information may be biased due to the reticence among males about admitting a past bullying experience. Nevertheless, it is interesting that females reported a higher percentage in all categories. Bullying hierarchy As with most competitive atmospheres, the social struggle among today’s youth has an evident hierarchy. Bullying is a component of this hierarchy and has its own structure. According to Dr. Dan Olweus, there 36 — The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications †¢ Vol. 3, No. 1 †¢ Spring 2012 are seven different levels within the bullying ladder: the students who want to bully and initiate the action, their followers or henchmen, supporters or passive bullies, passive supporters or possible bullies, disengaged onlookers, possible defenders, and defenders who dislike the action of bullying and help those that are victimized (Olweus, 2001). Dismantling the aggressive portion of this ladder and shifting students to a deterring mindset must be a fundamental part of any prevention program. IV. Clinical Perspective/Repercussions At first, one may believe that the effects of bullying is limited to initial responses that tend to fade within a few days or a week, at most. However, research indicates that the harm inflicted by bullying, whether physical or psychological, has many implications and can result in a snowball effect of lasting painful emotions and negative impacts. Gender and bullying Though many students tend to deny the emotional harm caused by bullying tactics such as namecalling, rumor spreading, and teasing, research suggests the opposite. In a study that utilized a sample of over 3,000 students, researchers found that â€Å"38 percent of bully victims felt vengeful, 37 percent were angry and 24 percent felt helpless.† Furthermore, in a study conducted by the Cyberbullying Research Center involving a sample size of 468 students revealed that females are typically more emotionally affected by cyberbullying than males. The females in the study reported being frustrated (39.6%), angry (36%), and sad (25.2%) more often than males who reported lower percentages in each category (27.5%, 24.3%, 17.9% respectively). This is not surprising due to the fact, as mentioned earlier, that males have a reluctance to admit weaknesses especially from an emotional standpoint. In reality, one would expect males to be at least equal if not higher in emotional response conc erning anger and frustration. (Hinduja & Patchin, 2009c, p.1). Age and bullying In another study conducted by the Cyberbullying Research Center, the emotional repercussions of cyberbullying across age groups were observed. The study discovered that anger and frustration remain the dominant responses among senior and junior high students, but students at the elementary level are more likely to feel sad as a result of being bullied (Hinduja & Patchin, 2009c, p.1). This is likely because at a younger age children are not battling with the same kind of competitive social hierarchy typically found within upper level schools. So, rather than feeling the need to prove themselves among their peers, students at the elementary level tend to well-up within the initial emotional responses to bullying. This points to the idea that younger children may keep their initial emotional responses to themselves rather than acting out. Unfortunately, regardless of the initial emotional reaction to bullying, these emotions have the ability to continue to develop, with serious clinical implications. A 2003 intensive survey study, which focused on the clinical effects of cyberbullying, reported an increase in emotional distress specifically related to cyberbullying. The study involving 512 professionals coming from psychology, psychiatry and social work backgrounds reported that for â€Å"one-third (34%) of these youth, the Internet problem played a primary role in the client’s treatment† (Mitchell, Finelhot & Becker-Blease, 2007, p. 48). This evidence proves that cyberbullying is having noticeable clinical effects on today’s youth. In his â€Å"General Strain Theory,† sociologist Robert Agnew hypothesized that the strain and stress exerted on an individual as a result of bullying â€Å"can manifest itself in problematic emotions that lead to deviant behavior,† possibly leading to delinquency (Agnew, 2006, pp. 659-660). This theory stresses the vicious cycle that many teens may go through while being victimized. The cyclical repercussions of this process are particularly alarming if it leads a victim to antisocial behaviors when they try to find an outlet for their emotions. In 2001, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention reported that â€Å"60 percent of males who were bullies in grades 6 through 9 were convicted of at least one crime as adults, compared with 23 percent who did not bully; 35 to 40 percent of these former bullies had three or more convictions by the age of 24, compared with 10 percent of those who did not bully† (Ericson, 2001). Offenders are likely to utilize bullying tactics as an outlet for other insecurities or problems in their lives. This utilization of bullying as a coping mechanism contributes to the cyclical nature that the process evidently has on victims and offenders Bullying and Cyberbullying by Richard Donegan — 37 alike. Not only do these flawed coping mechanisms fail to resolve the emotional distress caused by bullying, they also expand the overall problem of deviant behavior. This inability for bullied victims and offenders to find adequate relief for emotional wounds, coupled with the fact that youth are unlikely to seek relief though a mentor, explains why some youth begin to feel helpless. Feeling lost in emotional distress with seemingly no way for relief allows suicidal or even thoughts of violent response to creep in to a youth’s consciousness (Ericson, 2001). So, what does this all mean? Research confirms that both bully victims as well as offenders are emotionally harmed by the act of cyberbullying. In a fact sheet produced by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, loneliness, humiliation, and insecurity were each reported as further manifestations of the initial emotional responses to the bullying process. These feelings have the potential to cause students to fear going to school. This constant instability makes it difficult for bully victims to adjust socially and emotionally, focus on their studies, and develop in a healthy mental fashion. These responses can lead to more serious clinical implications, such as depression, which can continue to develop into even worse problems (Ericson, 2001, pp. 1-2). The extreme consequences of bullying are suicidal thoughts or thoughts of violent revenge. According to a National Vital Statistics Report, suicide is the 3rd leading cause of death among youth ranging in age from 15 to 24 (Anderson & Smith, 2003). Furthermore, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reported â€Å"substantial increases in both homicide and suicide rates among males from 2000 to 2003† (Fraizer, 2005). This statistic becomes chillingly relevant as more information is uncovered concerning the link between cyberbullying and suicidal ideation or action. According to Rigby and Slee, â€Å"Youth who are bullied or who bully others, are at an elevated risk for suicidal thoughts, attempts, and completed suicides† (Rigby & Slee, 1999, p. 119). Statistically both victims of cyberbullying as well as offenders proved to be much more likely to have attempted â€Å"bullycide,† the act of committing suicide due to the effects of bullying, than youth wh o had not been affected (High, 2007). Online publication of personal information is dangerous because it allows many people to see a side of a person more often kept private in a face-to-face interaction. This vulnerability puts many teens in a position as either the victim or active offender partaking in cyberbullying actions. Another aspect of social media that can be misleading and hazardous is the ability to create alias profiles. The ability for teens to mask their identities provides them with an opportunity to say anything to another individual without the worry of any repercussions. Social media sites, such as Facebook and Google+, are prone to abuses like cyberbullying. Anonymous blogging is another technological advancement that has fostered cyberbullying activity and fueled ethical debate. On sites, such as College ACB and Juicy Campus, which have both recently faced tightened regulations due to their verbally abusive nature, youth (typically of college age) were able to login and comment anonymously in an open forum. The forum included harsh topics ranging from â€Å"Most Attractive† to â€Å"Worst Hookup.† The sites even included certain topic headings that were simply a person’s name under which people could post insulting comments. These blogging sites are illustrative of the most dramatic forms of cyberbullying thus far. V. Case Law and Legislation Although all of the evidence illustrates the effects of cyberbullying on today’s youth, lawmakers at both the state and federal levels continue to wrestle with the issue. Unfortunately, it has taken a number of cases to force lawmakers to come to terms with the harsh reality of the situation and attempt to mold laws to deal with such issues. The infringement on student’s 1st Amendment rights is what originally sparked heated controversies concerning schools limiting what students could do or say on or off school grounds. Throughout history, the United States has been shaped by the public’s right to freely express their opinions. Inevitably, when a case arises attempting to limit these rights, the plaintiff’s side is often hard to argue due to such a strong tradition. Without limiting constitutional rights, lawmakers must grapple with the difficult task of defining cyberbullying, as well as determining proper sanctions for committing the act. Because of this, many cases dealing with freedom of speech on and off school grounds have worked their way up to the United States Supreme Court in the past. Federal law One of the earliest cases that dealt with this issue on a public school campus was Tinker vs. Des Moines in 1969 (Tedford & Herbeck, 2009, pp. 1-4). In this case, three high school students arrived on campus wearing black armbands, symbolically protesting the Vietnam War. The school’s administration told the students that they must remove the armbands, and if they refused to do so they would be suspended. The students refused and were sent home. They took the case to court, arguing that their 1st Amendment rights had been violated by the school. The case eventually made it to the United States Supreme Court. The court ruled that any school preventing the expression of opinion must prove that the prohibition was enforced â€Å"to avoid substantial interference with school discipline or the rights of others† (Hinduja & Patchin, 2011, p. 2). Because the school was unable to prove either of these factors, the suspensions were considered unconstitutional and the court ruled in favor of the students. This case set the first guidelines for what forms of expression public schools could and could not limit. As time has continued and technology has progressed, this issue has expanded to whether or not schools can interfere with student’s actions off-campus. J.S. v. Bethlehem Area School (2000) involved a student who was expelled from school for creating 38 — The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications †¢ Vol. 3, No. 1 †¢ Spring 2012 a page on the Internet that included threatening and derogatory comments about members of the administration. The court ruled that the school was justified in taking action due to its ability to prove that the public information fostered an evident disruption of the school environment. In its closing statements, the U.S. Supreme Court stated the following: â€Å"Regrettably, in this day and age where school violence is becoming more commonplace, school officials are justified in taking very seriously threats against faculty and other students† (Herbeck, 2010). Such schoolyard violence had reached this level at Columbine High School in 1999. Through this and more recent cases, the federal government has defined the requirements for offcampus behavior, such as cyberbullying, to be regulated by the school. For a school to take action, there must be a clear disruption to the educational process or a representation of true threat. To determine whether or not an expression is representative of a true threat, the court must determine â€Å"whether a reasonable person [in the speaker’s position] would foresee that the statement would be interpreted by those to whom the maker communicates the statement as a serious expression of intent to harm or assault† (Herbeck, 2010). The idea of public schools limiting student’s speech off campus is highly relevant as cyberbullying becomes a more recognized problem nationally. School administrations and communities must take past cases into account as well as current legal definitions of what constitutes a disruption of the educational process or a true threat when deve loping an effective preventative program. State level Similar to speech and harassment laws at the federal level, individual states continue to wrestle with defining the problem and what legal actions to take when a violation occurs. Unfortunately, it took a number of high-profile cases, and even some suicides, to bring the issue to the attention of many states’ courts and legislatures. One such case revolved around an incident in Missouri during 2006. This case, formally known as United States vs. Lori Drew, involved Drew and her daughter creating a false MySpace account under the alias name â€Å"Josh.† The defendants used the account to become friends with the victim, 13-year-old Megan Meier, whom Drew’s daughter attended school with. After becoming friends with Meier, Drew and her daughter started sending hateful comments to her. Meier took these comments to heart and committed suicide. The Missouri district court determined that they could not hold Drew directly accountable for the harassment leading to Meier’s death due to extraneous circumstances and lack of legal encompassment. However, due to public outcry, federal prosecutors took charge by applying the Computer Fraud and Abuse act to the case. This act is typically used to prosecute electronic theft, but in this instance was used to apply the Myspace terms of service. The terms require users to abide by a host of regulations, which â€Å"required truthful and accurate registration, refraining from using information from MySpace to harass others [and] refraining from promoting false or misleading information† (â€Å"Unites states of America v. Lori Drew,† 2009). Based on MySpace’s terms of service, the jury found Drew guilty of one felony count for conspiracy and three misdemeanors counts for unauthorized computer use. This case caused Missouri to modify its state harassment law to encompass acts of cyberbullying like the Lori Drew case. The law now prohibits any electronic communication that â€Å"‘knowingly frightens, intimidates, or causes emotional distress† (Henderson, 2009). VI. Prevention As cyberbullying draws more attention, a universal definition has begun to take shape within the law. Though not acknowledged across all states, a common definition in congruence with a wider recognition of the problem makes addressing the elusive issue a bit easier. The problem is that technology will inevitably continue to advance. So, as technology progresses, local and national anti-bullying policies and laws must continue to evolve at a parallel rate. Many of the issues faced by federal and state governments concerning cyberbullying are avoidable for schools and communities at the local level through the implementation of procedures to limit the effects of cyberbullying. Recognition of the problem One of the most notable issues that need to be addressed is recognition of the problem itself. Many people, whether parents, teachers, or even law enforcement officers, do not know what their specific state Bullying and Cyberbullying by Richard Donegan — 39 laws are in regards to cyberbullying. In a formal survey of approximately 1,000 officers, â€Å"over 85 percent . . . said that cyberbullying was a serious concern that warrants the response of law enforcement. 90 percent of the school’s resource officers had dealt with a cyberbullying case ‘sometimes’ or ‘often.’† Despite this obvious concern, â€Å"25 percent of the school resource officers and over 40 percent of the traditional law enforcement officers did not know if their state had a law specific to cyberbullying† (Patchin, 2011). These statistics are alarming considering that the number of states without some kind of bullying or harassment specific law can be counted on o ne hand (HI,MI,MT,SD) and the number of states with cyberbullying specific laws are increasing. Every person that deals with children (i.e. education, parenting, law enforcement, etc.) should know the bullying or harassment law specific to his or her state, the physical and emotional signs of bullying, and his or her community or school prevention plan, including how to deal with and report a problem. Along with recognizing the problem and being able to identify solutions, it is vital that cyberbullying be addressed in a consistent way. To effectively put a harness on the problem will require â€Å"a concerted and coordinated effort – a partnership if you will – among our families, schools, youth organizations, and communities† (Morino, 1997). If American communities and schools address the issue with a clear preventative program that keeps each level of prohibition on the same page, children will in turn receive a consistent message from a young age, which will presumably resonate effectively. This message should cause children to feel comfortable with confronting and reporting the problem by portraying any form of bullying as unacceptable. Furthermore, this consistency across a given program will change the overall environment rather than just focusing on individual cases. According to Dorothy Espelage and Susan Swearer’s book Bullying in American Schools, â€Å"A comprehensive program . . . is generally more powerful in reducing bullying and increasing school safety than concentrating on individual students† (Espelage & Swearer, 2009). Potential Solutions Credited with initiating the first systematic bullying research in the early 1970s, Dr. Dan Olweus is primarily known for his bullying prevention programs. The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, enacted by Norway’s Ministry of Education, develops methods of dealing with bullying on a variety of levels including school-level components, individual-level components, classroom-level components, and community-level components. This all-encompassing structure creates a cohesive plan in which each level reinforces the next. Since its creation, the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program has been adopted in schools across the world. According to a series of evaluations involving 40,000 students from 42 schools over a two and a half year period, the program proved to be successful. The studies verified the program’s success by reporting â€Å"reductions by 20 to 70 percent in student reports of being bullied and bullying others,† â€Å"reductions in student reports of antis ocial behavior, such as vandalism, fighting, theft, and truancy† and â€Å"clear improvements in the classroom social climate† (Olweus, 2005, pp. 389-402). A mixed-methods research design carried out in Nevada, in which 118 middle school principals were surveyed about cyberbullying, identified components of a successful preventative program. Of those surveyed, 66 responded and 10 agreed to participate in a one-on-one interview. From these ten, three were selected and questioned intensively about cyberbullying and preventative strategies within their school as well as about their thoughts on the issue in general. Based on the interview results, the following six components were identified as essential elements to a preventative cyberbullying program: â€Å"the importance of a reporting procedure; curriculum integration; student-centered productions through mediums such as Broadcast Journalism; a focus on prevention rather than solely on punishment; the importance of punishment as a part of an effective policy; and keeping up with changes in technology† (Wiseman, 2011). VII. Conclusion Bullying is deeply engrained in American culture. Our society illustrates the pinnacle of capitalistic competition. This win-or-die-trying atmosphere, the competitive college acceptance process, and much of the corporate world, contribute to many of the bullying problems that we battle today. The issues of bullying and cyberbullying can only be contained in the short term and not eliminated completely due to how deep-seeded they have become in our competitive society. The clinical repercussions that bullying and cyberbullying have on today’s youth present the most 40 — The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications †¢ Vol. 3, No. 1 †¢ Spring 2012 troubling issue at hand. The permanent mental effects are what both the law and prevention programs are striving to eliminate. The fact that these initial emotional responses to bullying in any form have been proven to escalate to the point of suicidal thoughts and violent response is the primary reason for why this issue has become a matter of pressing public concern. The thought of children getting so caught up in the psychological battery of bullying that they commit suicide is extremely troubling, an issue that must be dealt with. Though the legislative and judicial branches at both the state and federal levels are having a difficult time adapting laws to encompass cyberbullying as technology advances, there is assurance in the fact that the issue is a pressing co ncern. However, it is unsettling that it takes drastic cases such as United States vs. Lori Drew to bring about a direct change in law. Ideally, laws will develop in correspondence with technology to help define the problem itself and establish appropriate judicial repercussions. As more is learned about the reasons behind bullying and the specific tactics utilized, prevention programs are becoming increasingly more effective. As discussed previously, a successful program needs to clearly identify the problem, establish recognition, and formulate consistent ways of dealing with the issue across all platforms. The biggest struggle for cyberbullying prevention in the future is matching the fast pace of technological innovation with effective preventative techniques Acknowledgments I am thankful to Dr. Michael Frontani for his support and guidance during the writing process of this research paper. His wisdom and encouragement acted as the catalyst, which drove me to really dive into the subject. Bibliography Agnew, R. (2006). Pressured into crime: an overview of general strain theory. New York: Oxford University Press. Espelage, D., &. Swearer, S (2009). Bullying in American schools: a social-ecological perspective on prevention and intervention. Retrieved from Berkeley Technology Law Journal, 24(1), 659-660. Ericson, N. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Program. (2001). 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